EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION - Meaning, AUTHORITARIAN AND DEMOCRATIC EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

1.1 MEANING AND DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

The world ‘administration* has been derived from the Latin word ‘minister* which means, ‘service rendered to others for their welfare*.

The classical and medieval meanings of the terra ‘administration were - perform, take charge of or accomplish’. The recent dictionary defines it as direction or management.

The term ‘Educational Administration* is very comprehensive. It is concerned with the formulation, execution and appraisal of educational policies.

A school comes into being through the process of organising. Then comes its administration. Running or functioning of the school is the job of the head of tire institution. 'This does not mean that only the Head and none else is responsible for adminisiriition. In fact, administration is a job of many minds and many heads. All combined into one. The Head of the institution is the leader who is to make all other follow him. Thus educational administration is more or less a co-operative undertaking and in the language of economic it is a ‘Non profit making enterprise’.

Education administration has been defined variously. Some of the important definitions are given below :

American Association of School Administration describes administration as “the total of the processes through which appropriate human and material resources are made available and made effective for accomplishing the purpose of an enterprise.”

Campbelll, Corably and Ramesyer observe in Introduction to Educational Administration that the educational administration “consists of facilitating the development of goals and policies basic to teaching and learning, stimulating the development of  appropriate programmes for teaching and learning and procuring and managing personnel and material to implement teaching and learning.”

Dictionary of Education by Good defines educational administration as “All those techniques and procedures employed in operating the educational organisation in accordance with established policies is defined as administration.”

Grayson Kefauner has observed in The Forty Fifth Year Book of as, “Educational administration approaches statemanship when there are clearly formulated long term policies and objectives, and when day-to-day activities and problems are dealt with under the guidance of the perspective given by such long - term policies .”

According to National Society for the Study of Education (NSSE) “Educational Administration is a social statemanship which guides educational activities, plans, programmes mid facilities, and provides leadership in a long-term but broad social perspective.”

Educational Administration has been defined by R. Mort as, “ the influencing of one group of human beings, the pupils, to grow towards defined objectives, utilising a second group of human beings, the teachers, as agents; and operating in a setting of a third group of public, variously concerned both with objectives and with means used to achieve them.”

Russell T. Gregg, in an article on Administraion in Encyclopedia of Educational Research writes, “Educational Administration is the process of utilising expropriate materials in such a way as to promote effectively the development of human qualities. It is concerned not only with the development of children and youth, but also with the growth of adults and particularly with the growth of school personnel.”

According to Samuel Mathai, “Educational Administration presumably means the combined operation of a large number of persons whereby the whole fabric of education in the country is maintained in good working condition. An administration is a person who has a part to play in running an institution. He is responsible servant whose duties may include both giving orders and carrying out orders.”

The International Encyclopedia of Higher Education (1988) edited by Asa S. Knowles and other reads “Educational Administration, in general, is concerned with the management of state and local school systems and with local school attendance units. Identified with the executive branch of government, educational administration is treated usually as a field of study in it self and not as a part of public administration. A more sophisticated definition of educational administration is, “A social process concerned with creating, maintaining, stimulating, controlling and unifying, formally and informally organized human and material energy within a unified system designed to accomplish predetermined (educational ) objectives ( Knezevich, 1969).

The Encyclopedia of Education (1971) by IEEC. Deighton States, “Educational Administration is concerned with the overall direction and support of the schools. It includes the immediate leadership of the school principal and the specialised skills of the business manager, curriculum co-ordinator, and other staff specialists, all under the general supervision of the superintendent. The concept of administration as a profession evolved with the expansion of educational enterprise during the late nineteenth century.”

“Administration is justified only to the extent that it contributes to the capacity of organisation to fulfil its primary mission. In the field of education, administration is justified only as it contributes to the capacity of the school to help children and youth to grow toward responsible boyhood.

- Clsvence A., Nowell (1978).

According to the Concies Dictionary of Education ( 1982 ), “Administration includes Management, Organisation, Operation and Supervision of an educational institution. Usually includes all institutional functions other than teaching ”

Stephen I Knezevich describes educational administration “as a process concerned with creating, maintaining, stimulating and unifying the energies within an educational institution towards realization of the predetermined objectives ”

Will French, Hull and Dodds compare administration to a lens that brings everything about die school into focus for community, faculty and students. If it is a poor lens, the image is fuzzy and obscure, and no one in the school or community gets a clear picture of what the school is trying to go. If it is a good lens, the school becomes a clear cut and vivid projection of the ideals and ideas that all hoped to bring into being.

Educational Administration is a process that includes the combined operation of a large number of persons whereby the whole fabric of education in the country is maintained in good working condition. It is the process of utilising appropriate materials in such a way as to promote effectively the development of human qualities. It includes all those techniques and procedures employed in operating the educational organisation in accordance with established policies.

Educational Aministration means the totality of the process through which appropriate human and material resources are emade available and made effective for accomplishing the purpose of an 'enterprise.

SCOPE AND FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Education is one of the hugest enterprises undertaken for the purpose of the development and growth of the individual and to meet the needs of Society. It involves the activity of a large number of people - students, teachers, parents and the public. For such a big enterprise we need a sound machinery to run it and effective principles to secure efficiency. There is need for the co-operative activity of all participants in the educative process for the achievement of its goals. It is the task of administration to set up such machinery and make it work smoothly and effectively. The scope of educational administration therefore extends to a vast area and a large variety of activities. We shall to understand the scope of educational administration taking cue from business and industry.

Qrdway Tead has laid down the scope of general administration under five areas, viz, Production, Assuring public use, Finance and Accounting, Personnel, and Coordination. Applying these five areas to the fields of education we can try down the scope of educational administration:

1. Production refers to social activity of work for which an organisation is set up. In education it means realization of the goals of education which have been set up by society. Educational Administration has therefore to interpret the aims of education to the educational workers so that they may shape the final product of education (the achievement of the pupils) in the desired form and shape.

2. Assuring public use means that the activity and the product of the efforts of the organisation, the goals and services produced, must be such that they are acceptable of use and benefit to the public, because it is for this that the public has set up the organisation. It is the business of educational administration to define the operations needed, to make them known and to promote them so that the final educational product is good for public and the society.

3. Finance and accounting refers to the receipt and disbursement of money invested in the activities of the organisation. Educational administration is also concerned with receiving and spending money necessary for the operation and activities of the educational machinery. It should record and measure the monetary and other resources invested in the educational enterprise and also evaluate the inputs and outputs.

4. Personnel is the framing and operation of policies and procedures for recruitment of workers and maintenance of good-will and personal relationships among them in order to ensure fullest interest, cooperation, moral and loyalty of all the persons working in the organisation. This is specially important for the educational enterprise where the whole work is centred round the impact of one type of human beings, the teachers, upon another type of human beings, the students. The scope of educational administration, therefore, spreads over the personnel.

5. Coordination is an important activity of educational administration. It ensures the close inter-relation and integration of all the functional activities of the organisation such as personnel, finance and production of desired results. Such integration has to be brought about not only in the structure of the organisation but also of the attitudes and efforts of the workers, so that all of them pull together in the direction of the desired goals and achieve them.

Sears has pointed out the scope of administration more specifically in relation to education as follows:

1- Establishing educational purpose, by expressing them in the form of aims and the programme of work in order to accomplish them, i.e., laying oat the work of the organisation.

2. Provision and development of the personnel and necessary financees, housing; materials and facilities for carrying out the work of the organisation, i.e., mobilising resources of men and materials for the realisation of the aims of education.

3. Laying down procedures and techniques for the performance of the work and the policies and plans to guide the work, i.e., the curriculum and methods of teaching and supervision.

4. Defining the nature and procedure of use of authority (legal, official and personal) and control (scientific and democratic) by which the administrative process will operate.

5. Deciding the nature of aims and procedures by which the administrative process will operate.

6. Deciding the mechanism (structure and relationships) by which authority and power are applied in the administrative process.

From the above discussion we find that the scope of educational administration is very wide and extends over many fields. When the process starts working numerous problems arise and have to be solved on the basis of a broad social perspective and the nation’s way of life. In view of the innumerable activities that have to be performed by educational administration its scope may be broadly classified and delineated under the following areas:

1. Legal Structure refers to the laws that have to be passed and rules and regulations have to be framed in order to determine the agencies of education, their types, powers and standards of educational institutions to be run by them, to prescribe authority end control, to fix up responsibility and obligations, to decide the question of decentralisation of management and to set up organisational and administrative machinery.

2. Pupils. Children are the centre of the educational enterprise. It is for them that the entire process of education and its constituents exist. It is therefore necessary to determine the individual and social purposes and procedures of their education in accordance with their needs, interests and capacities and the demands of society. Rules far their admission, promotion, discipline, etc., have to be framed and implemented.

3. Personnel. To run educational activities necessary and adequate man-power has to be found and engaged. Personnel plays the key-role in education. This is the fly-wheel or the driving force of the educational machinery. Proper attention has to be paid to the workers. Men and women have to be selected, recruited and trained and their qualifications and standards have to be prescribed. Good service conditions like attractive salaries, security of tenure, welfare service and retirement benefits have to be offered to bring in the best available talent. Schemes for their direction, guidance and supervision have to be drawn up. Last but not the least, a good and effective programme for the workers’ continuous development and professional progress through reorientation and in-service education has to be launched.

4. Finance is an important area which includes problems of income and expenditure and their accounting and auditing. Decisions have to be taken about the sharing of the cost of education by the centre and the States and the Local Bodies. The policy of taxation and prescribing fees, etc., has to be formulated. Rules and regulations have to be framed for budgeting, spending and controlling of funds and resources.

5. Curriculum is the means of achieving the goals of education. Educational administration has to deal with the problem of curriculum construction and its day to day development. It has also to look after the continuous evaluation and progressive improvement of the educational programme which are urgently called for in view of the constantly going on scientific, technological and social changes. Administration has to pay close attention to the teaching-learning programmes and processes and also to other instructional material. Important pupil services, such as health and recreation and psychological services of testing and records, guidance and t counselling and co-curricular activities, etc., have to be organised and administered for the benefit of the young.

6. Physical Facilities comprise the area dealing with the problem of provision and maintenance of the school plant equipment and supplies, their production, purchase, upkeep and accounting.

7. Public Relation. Education is a social enterprise run with the cooperation of students, teachers, parents and the community. Educational administration has to make each of them contribute its due share to the success of the enterprise. It should, therefore, maintain effective public relations. This involves maintenance of records, issuing periodical reports, information and bulletins about past achievement and future proposals. Administration should encourage community visitation, and secure its participation and cooperation by a process of give and take, i.e., by utilizing community resources and rendering useful services for its welfare.

It is necessary to add a work of caution here. The above list and categorisation are only suggestive and not exclusive. They are not arranged in any priority order, as all of them are equally necessary and important. The analysis has been made only for the sake of convenience of discussion and all the different areas of scope should be viewed with an approach to integration.

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Administration is the service rendered to the school and society in the task of achieving the educational goals by co-ordinating the efforts of the people engaged in the task. It is the process through which the functions of the school are discharged. Administration has therefore to perform some definite functions. Several attempts have been made to list these functions of which three of them have been noted below:

(1) In the Forty-fifth Year book are mentioned the following functions of educational administration.

1. To delegate authority and responsibility.

2. To strengthen local initiative and local control.

3. To secure the greatest return from the money spent.

4. To secure the goodwill of personnel, public education department and other social agencies and institutions.

5. To implement a democratically determined programme.

6. To determine policies and to implement them.

7. To utilise maximally the special capacities of the personnel and the material resources.

8. To integrate the units concerned with the same problems or areas.

(2) Jeaie B. Sean defines the subject matter of the field of educational administration as activities given below:

1. Establishing educational purpose by expressing them in the form of aims and a program of work to be accomplished, e.g., laying out its work.

2. Development and organisation of a personnel and the necessary finances, housing, materials and facilities for carrying on the work.

3. Procedures and techniques for the performance of tire work, including the policies and the plans to guide it.

4. Nature and use of the authority (legal, scientific, social and personal) by which administration operates.

5. Origin and nature of the aims and processes by which administration operates.

6. Nature of the mechanism by which authority and knowledge are applied in the process of administration.

Of these six items the fast three are related to the practice of administration, while the latter three have with theory or philosophy underlying practices.

(3) Russell T. Gregg describes the administrative process as having seven functions or components: decision making; planning; organizing; communicating; influencing; coordinating; and evaluating.

The researcher feels that a long list of the functions of educational administration can be prepared and yet would remain inexhaustive. And hence the researcher believed that a fruitful exercise would be to classify the functions under some broad categories like purposes, planning, organising, operating and evaluating. These five functions should be looked upon as stages in the administrative process but it must be remembered that they are not isolated activities. They often overlap and always produce results cumulatively.

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1.3 Authoritarian and Democratic Educational Management

Authoritarian/Autocratic Educational Management

Just like centralized management authoritarian management plays its role. In centralized management the centralization of the power and responsibility of educational management centered in and exercised by, a central power, organisation or agency. It implies that all the policies and programmes are planned, directed by one central agency. Here the central agency may be a person, a group of persons as “core group.” So when the powers and responsibilities center round a particular person or group then the term authoritarian or autocracy comes into limelight.

In this context it will be suffice if will discuss authoritarian/autocratic management where authority and control lies in one person or group or institution. In this management the rights are absolute and supreme and educational management is a state of monopoly. In this type of educational management every aspect of education is controlled by one. And educational administration becomes centralized being dominated by bureaucracy, which controlls through strict administration of laws, rules and regulations.

The business of the staff is to emphasize these laws, rules and central orders and to see that these are properly carried out. The teacher as the real and regular practioner becomes the mouth piece of the central authority having no professional freedom. This type of educational management generally found in totalitarian or unitary states. In this type of states educational management remains in the hand of the head of the educational institution who exercises authority and control in a centralized form. It implies that he directs every action of his teachers and students. He plans all the school activities.

He tells the teachers and students what to think as well as what to do. He takes decision and gives all directions to teachers and students. He thinks himself as an only active agency in the management of every educational programme of the institution. In this type of management ‘I-feelings’ are pre-dominant and ego of one individual prevails.

Democratic educational management:

Now in the modern era democracy is unanimously regarded and accepted “as the way of life.” This is not only applicable in case of a particular nation but also for the entire globe/world. This very statement implies that in every aspect of development the democratic principles, values and ideas must be adhered or accepted. Accordingly in the field of management it must be accepted and implemented.

Being contextual in approach it can be visualized that in the field of education democratic management is highly stressed. In other-words it can be said that democratic educational management is the need of the day for bringing wholesome educational development of every nation. Like other educational managements “authority and control” are also the two basic hallmarks in democratic educational management, which are exercised in decentralized form.

Decentralization refers to the type of management in which control is vested in the agencies or persons ranging from grass-root level to top level. It recognizes the rights of all the agencies or persons who are linked with the educational institution. In this type of educational management ‘we feelings’ prevail in the educational institution with an environment of mutual trust, accompanied by co-operative planning, group discussion, participation of all the staff members and organization of the programme in a joint-venture.

In this management teachers get proper scope for planning, administering, organizing, directing, coordinating, supervising, controlling and evaluating the assignments entrusted upon them. However like democracy in democratic educational management the following principles are highly stressed.

Principles of Democratic Educational Management:

The principles of democratic educational management are:

a. Principle of sharing responsibility:

In the field of democratic educational management everybody who is more or less involved in the process should take the responsibility to share in the work.

b. Principle of Equality:

As equality is the basic hallmark of democracy. It should be treated and accepted in the field of democratic educational management. So all the personnel who are involved in the process should get equal facilities, rights and opportunities in doing their duty.

c. Principle of Freedom:

In the field of democratic educational management every person should be given freedom to do their duty in their own jurisdiction. This will lead to make the educational management of every educational programme successful in democratic perspective.

d. Principle of Co-operation:

In order to make educational management of any educational programme a successful one a greater cooperation should be ensured among different persons involved in the field of educational management.

           

Counselling - Meaning, Principle and technique

Meaning of Counselling:

1. Counselling is not a process of giving advice, but it is a process of helping your patient who is genuinely in need.

2. It aims to help an individual to help himself to overcome his problem.

3. Counselling is different from a casual conversation as it builds a professional relationship with the patient.

4. It is totally FOCUSED, SPECIFIC and PURPOSEFUL.

5. Counselling is a long-term process and consists of professional communication.

6. What is Communication?

It is a process in which there is exchange of thoughts, ideas and feelings. It happens between two or more persons. It differs from casual communication.

THE CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING

Counselling the intimate and vital part of entire guidance. Webster‘s Dictionary defines Counselling as ―consultation, mutual interchange   of   opinions,   deliberating   together.‘      Wren   says

―counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who approach a mutually defined problem with mutual consideration for each other to the end that the younger or less mature, or more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined resolution of his problem.

―Counselling  is helping a person to come to see who he really is, what he has and does not have, what he can do easily, what he can do with difficulty and what he cannot do at all. It is a close sharing of a human relationship with one who has for him a high regard; one who can offer him unconditional acceptance, but one who has no guarantees, no answers.‖

Counselling     is     a     process     that     occurs     between     two individuals…counsellor and counselee (client) It. takes place within a professional setting.

It is initiated and maintained as a means of facilitating changes in the behaviour of the client.    It is a professional task for professionally trained people.

MEANING OF COUNSELLING

Though the term guidance and counselling is used interchangeably, both the terms have different meaning. We have studied about guidance, now we will know about counselling. In everyday life, we find counselling goes on at many levels. In a family, parents counsel their children, doctors counsel patients, lawyers to clients and teachers to students. There is no limitation to the problems or counsellors in providing  counselling, so, let us know what counselling is.

According to Webster dictionary counselling is defined as

―Consultation,           mutual interchange      of         opinions,          deliberating together.‖

―Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who approach a mutually defined problem, with mutual consideration of each other to the end that the younger or less mature or more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined resolution to his problem‖ - Wren-

―Counselling   is  an  interaction  process  which  facilitates meaningful understanding of self and environment and results in the establishment and or clarification of goals and values for future behaviors‖ -Shertzer and Stone.-

―Counselling is an accepting, trusting and safe relationship in which clients learn to discuss openly what worries and upsets them, to define precise behaviour goals, to acquire the essential social skills and to develop the courage and self confidence to implement desired new behaviour‖- Merle M. Ohlsen.-

―Counselling is a process by which a troubled person (client) is helped to tell and behave in a more personally satisfying manner through interaction with an uninvolved person (counsellor) who provides information and reactions which stimulate the client to develop behaviour which enable him to deal more effectively with himself and his environment.‖ -Edwin Lewis.-

If  all  the  definitions  are  analyzed  we  can  come  to  the following conclusions.

Counselling is a two way process. It involves two individuals.

There is mutual relationships between the two individuals.

It  helps  an  individuals  to  gain  self  understanding  self acceptance and self realization

Counselling constitutes the three activities like -

I -                      Informing

A-                     Advising and

C -                    Counselling

 

Informing:

Here the role of the counsellor is to give appropriate and correct information to the clients. For example you are a student and you need counselling to select your course for the future. Here the role of the counsellor is to give you information about the availability of different courses & its future prospects.

Advising:

In this stage the counsellor suggests appropriate courses of action. Here the counsellor will offer you several options and recommends one according to your aim or interest. For example if your aim is to be an engineer, the counsellor will suggest you a course related to applied mathematics.

Counselling:

In this stage counsellor helps the students to clarify his needs, feelings or motivations so that he can make the appropriate decision for himself.

For example if you will tell, you have no aim or you can not decide what you will do in the future. So the counsellor will ask you if you are not sure about what to do in future but you must want to do something interesting so describe about your idea.  Like this the counsellor can motivate you to find out your idea & can recommend you the course according to your interest.

NEED OF COUNSELLING

Counselling is an integral part of an over-all programme of guidance. “Counselling is a specific process of assistance extended by an expert in an individual situation to a needy person”. This means the counseling situation arises when a needy person is face to face with and expert who makes available his assistance to the needy individual to fulfill his needs.

Need of counseling

There is an urgent need of introducing and strengthening the counseling service in the schools and colleges of our country to meet the various needs of the students administrational and the educational system.

1. To help in the total development of the student:

Along with the intellectual development proper motivation and clarification of goals and ideas to pupils in conformity with their basic potentialities and social tendencies are important total development of the student nauseates that individual differences among them are expected, accepted, understood and planned for and all types of experiences in an institution are to be so organized as to contribute to the total development of the student.

2. To help in the proper choices of courses

3. To help in the proper choices of carvers

4. To help in the students in vocational development

5. To develop readiness for choices and changes to face new challenges.

6. To minimize the mismatching between education and employment and help in the efficient use of manpower.

7. To motivate the youth for self employment.

8. To help freshers establish proper identity. Guidance and counseling service is needed to help students deal effectively with the normal developmental tasks of adolescence and face life situations boldly.

9. To identify and motivate the students form weaker sections of society.

10. To help the students in their period of turmoil and confusion.

11. To help in checking wastage and stagnation.

12. To identity and help students in need of special help.

13. There are such students as the gifted, the backward the handicapped who need special opportunities. They need special attention and opportunities.

14. To ensure the proper utilization of time spent outside the classrooms.

The manner in which student spend their non class hours clearly affects their success in achieving both academic competence and personal development of all types a positive direction to students should be provided by influencing how they can use those non class hours.

15. To help in talking problems arising out of students population explosion

16. To check migration to prevent brain drain.

17. To make up for the deficiencies of home.

18. To minimize the incidence of indiscipline.

Bargadon has mentioned the following situations where counseling in required:

1. When a pupil requires not only reliable information but also an interesting introspection of those in formations which can solve his personal difficulties.

2. When a pupil needs intelligent listener who has more experience than the pupil to whom he can recite his difficulties and through which can seek suggestions for his working plan.

3. When the counsellor has to assess those facilities which can help in resolving the pupil problems but the pupil doesn’t enjoy such an access to those facilities.

4. When the pupil has some problem but he is unaware of that problem and his development, he is to be made aware of that problem.

5. when the pupil is aware of the problem and difficulties created by the problem but he feels difficult to define it and to understand it that is, when the pupil is familiar with the presence of the problem and its nature but he is unable to face the problem due to this temporary tension and distraction.

6. When the pupil suffer the main maladjustment problem or some handicapped which is temporary and which needs careful long due diagnosis by an expert.

Majority of students lack a sense of direction, a sense of purpose and a sense of fulfillment and include in destructive activities which lead to social damage and loss. Adequate guidance and counselling facilities is the only answer to help and guide the youth to worthwhile channels and help them to realize the goals of optimum academic personal and social development.

Problems and needs in society are nothing new. But today they seen to be proliferating unprecedented rate. The unique problems in the changing family, cities in up level, conflicts in values, attitudes and moral , the new criticism about politics, economic factors the changing role of work, new pressure and demands on school and the problems of the youth all points out the needs for the counselling services. Guidance and counselling have a challenging role to play in every developing economy much more so if it is a labour surplus one.

Principles of Counselling:

1. Principle of acceptance—accept the patient with his physical, psycho­logical, social, economical and cultural conditions.

2. Principle of communication—communication should be verbal as well as non-verbal and should be skilful.

3. Principle of empathy—instead of showing sympathy put yourself in patients shoes and then give reflections accordingly (Empathy is ability to identify with a person.)

4. Principle of non-judge—mental attitude-do not criticize or comment negatively regarding patient’s complaints.

5. Principle of confidentiality—always keep the patient’s name, and the problem strictly secrete and assure the patient about the same.

6. Principle of individuality—treat each and every patient as unique and respect his problem as well.

7. Principles of non-emotional involvement—not getting emotionally in­volved with the patient and avoid getting carried away with his feelings.

Counseling Skills

As a student, your master's degree in counseling is about developing and expanding upon the counseling skills that will best help your clients. These are some of the most important counseling techniques you are likely to use in your counseling sessions.

Listening/Observing: Listening is one of the most valuable counseling skills in the therapeutic relationship. It can be used in three ways:

·                     Attending: Attending is the ability to be physically present for the client. It means giving them your undivided attention and making appropriate eye contact, mirroring body language, and nodding. These attending behaviors show your client that you care. In fact, according to Kevin J. Drab , approximately 80% of communication takes place non-verbally.

·                     Active listening: Active listening occurs when you are listening with all of your senses. According to the Perinatal Mental Health Project , active listening involves listening with your body, heart, ears, eyes, and mouth.

·                     Verbal listening: This is a form of showing you are listening through the words that you use. These verbal cues are used to show attention and to encourage more exploration from the client. This can be as simple as ‘yes’, or ‘go on’. It can also be in the form of paraphrasing or repeating a word of emotion that the client has just said.

Asking Questions: Questions are helpful in the therapeutic environment because they allow you to learn more about your client. The type of questions that you ask will set the tone of the session and the entire counseling process. Questions occur in two forms.

·                     Closed: A closed question is the practice of asking a question that can be answered as a ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Closed questions should generally be avoided in the counseling relationship, as they do not encourage deeper exploration.

·                     Open: An open question is necessary to gather information. An open question is one that cannot be answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ and it requires reflection or exploration on the client’s end. Every open question should be intentional and therapeutic. According to Susan Mills of the Nielsen Norman Group , the best open ended questions begin with ‘how’ and ‘what’.

Reflection: Reflections are used in the counseling process to accurately describe the client’s state  from their verbal or nonverbal cues.

·                     Feelings reflections: Reflections allow clients to hear the feelings they have just expressed. Sometimes you have to look for the descriptive feeling in a client’s statement. It can also be helpful to look at a client’s nonverbal feeling cues.

·                     Restating/Rephrasing: Restating and rephrasing can build a stronger client therapist relationship. Rephrasing a client’s statement allows you to better understand what a client has just said and to gain further clarity, if you have gotten it wrong.

·                     Affirmation: Affirmation is a form of encouragement that is used to affirm behaviors or life choices. Affirmation is important for empowering clients . A few common affirmations include affirming progress that a client has made toward a goal or encouraging a client to do what is important to them.

Empathy: Empathy is the ability to put yourself in someone else’s shoes. It is much more than sympathy in that you are able to show your understanding of your clients feeling surrounding an experience.

Genuineness: Begin genuine is creating congruence between yourself and your words. Every therapist is different and will provide a different therapeutic process. It is important to remain genuine in all counseling techniques and verbal and nonverbal cues.

Unconditional Positive Regard: Demonstrating unconditional positive regard is the idea of accepting your client for who they are. It is a means of expressing warmth  and respect.

Counselor Self-Disclosure: This is a tricky counseling skill to maneuver. A general rule to follow is to only share personal information that is beneficial to the therapeutic process. It might also be used to help the counselor relate better with their client.

techniques

1. Directive Counselling:

In this counselling the counsellor plays an active role as it is regarded as a means of helping people how to learn to solve their own problems. This type of counselling is otherwise known as counsellor-centred counselling. Because in this counselling the counsellor does everything himself i.e. analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, prescription and follow-up.

Features of Directive Counselling:

It has the following features:

1. During the interview attention is focused upon a particular problem and possibilities for its solution.

2. During the interview the counsellor plays a more active role than the client or pupil.

3. The pupil or client makes the decision, but the counsellor does all that he can to get the counsellee or client makes a decision in keeping with his diagnosis.

4. The counsellor tries to direct the thinking of the counsellee or client by informing, explaining, interpreting and advising him.

Steps in Directive Counselling:

The following steps are followed in this type of counselling:

(i) Analysis:

In this step data is collected from a variety of sources for an adequate understanding of the pupil.

(ii) Synthesis:

This step implies organizing and summarising the data to find out the assets, liabilities, adjustments and mal-adjustments of the pupil.

(iii) Diagnosis:

Formulating conclusions regarding the nature and causes of the problems expressed by the pupils is the major concern of this step.

(iv) Prognosis:

This step implies predicting the future development of the problem of client or pupil.

 (v) Counselling:

This step indicates taking steps by the counsellor with the pupil to bring about adjustment in life.

(vi)Follow-up:

This step implies helping and determining the effectiveness of the counselling provided to the pupil or client.

Role of the counsellor in Directive Counselling:

The counsellor plays the vital role in this counselling process. He is the pivot of the process and the leader of the situation. The counsellor does most of the talking problems and individual is not the focus. The counsellee in fact, works under the counsellor and not with him. The counsellor tries to direct the thinking of the counsellee or client by informing, explaining, interpreting and sometimes advising also.

The counsellor collects all possible information about the pupils or counsellees and analyses them for an adequate understanding. He summarizes and organises the data so as to understand the abilities and limitations, adjustment and mal-adjustment of the pupils. He formulates conclusions about the nature and causes of his problems. He predicts the future development of his problems.

He prescribes what the pupil should do to solve his problems and follows the consequences or effects of his prescription. Directive counselling is also called the prescriptive counselling because the counsellor prescribes the solutions or the course of action for the pupils.

Advantages of Directive counseling:

1) This method is useful from the time consuming view- point .It saves time.

2) In this type of counseling, there is more focus on the problem and the person.

3) The counselor can look the client directly.

4) Counseling focuses more on the intellectual aspects of the person than emotional aspect of the personality.

5) In this process, the counselor becomes readily available to help which makes the client very happy.

Limitations of Directive counseling-:

1) In this process the client is more dependent. He is also less able to solve new problems of adjustment.

2) As the client is never independent of the counselor, it is not an efficient best guidance.

3) Unless and until a person does not develop some attitude through experiences, he cannot make any decision himself.

4) The counselor fails in serving the client to commit the mistakes in future

2. Non-Directive Counselling:

In this type of counselling the counselee or client or pupil, not the counsellor is the pivot of the counselling process. He plays an active role and this type of counselling is a growing process. In this counselling the goal is the independence and integration of the client rather than the solution of the problem. In this counselling process the counsellee comes to the counsellor with a problem. The counsellor establishes rapport with the counsellee based on mutual trust, acceptance and understanding.

The counsellee provides all information about his problems. The counsellor assists him to analyze and synthesise, diagnose his difficulties, predict the future development of his problems, take a decision about the solution of his problems; and analyse the strengths and consequences of his solutions before taking a final decision. Since the counsellee is given full freedom to talk about his problems and work out a solution, this technique is also called the “permissive” counselling.

Pupil’s perception of the relationship:

When a pupil seeks the counsellor’s help, he soon discovers that the counsellor accepts him as he is and believes in his ability to solve his problem in his own way. He also learns that he can talk about whatever he chooses and sometimes he finds, even to his own surprise, that he can talk about topics which so far he couldn’t discuss with his closest friends. Though previous experiences with counsellors may have taught him that the counsellor is a “giver of advice”.

He now finds that he is talking with a person who tries to understand him, tries to follow what he is saying and feeling, tries to help him understand himself, and neither gives advice not attempts to manipulate him into making a decision which the counsellor believes is best for him. He feels that the counsellor understands why he sees the things differently at different times and he learns that if he wishes, he can terminate or avoid the relationship without solving the specific problem which is brought to the consellor.

Steps in Non-Directive Counselling:

The following steps are adopted in this counselling process:

1. The pupil or individual comes for help as the counsellee.

2. The counsellor defines the situation by indicating that he doesn’t have the answer but he is able to provide a place and an atmosphere in which the client or pupil can think of the answers or solutions to his problems.

3. The counsellor is friendly, interested and encourages free expression of feeling regarding the problem of the individual.

4. The counsellor tries to understand the feeling of the individual or client.

5. The counsellor accepts and recognizes the positive as well as the negative feelings.

6. The period of release or free expression is followed by a gradual development of insight.

7. As the client recognizes and accepts emotionally as well as intellectually his real attitudes and desires, he perceives the decisions that he must make and the possible courses of action open to him.

8. Positive steps towards the solution of the problem situation begin to occur.

9. A decreased need for help is felt and the client is the one who decides to end the contract.

Merit

Freedom of the individual

Relieves tensions due to catharsis

Moves toward acceptance of himself

Confronts weaknesses without feeling threatened

Demerits

Time consuming

Wisdom and judgement of the client cannot be relied upon

All the problems cannot be sorted out through talking

Limitations:

Non-directive counselling is time consuming. Many sessions may be required to convince the client to utilize his inner resources for solving his problems.

A teacher with very little knowledge of dynamics of students’ behaviour will not be competent to use this technique. It is difficult for the counsellor to interpret negative feeling often expressed by the client in the counselling session. Sometimes, it is quite possible that no acceptable solutions emerge out of a counselling session.

Training in the use of this technique is necessary for undertaking the counselling session.

3. Eclectic Counselling:.

Eclectic counselling is a combination of directive and non-directive technique depending upon the situational factors. This approach in counselling is best characterised by its freedom to the counsellor to use whatever procedures or techniques seem to be the most appropriate to any particular time for any particular client. This counselling is one where one who is willing to utilize any procedures which hold promise even though their theoretical bases differed markedly.

This counselling recognizes that each theory may contain some truth and that so long as a final decision between theories can’t be made practical necessity justifiably takes precedence over orthodoxy. The counsellor in this counselling may start with directive technique but switches over to non-directive counselling if the situation requires. He may also start with the non-directive technique and switches over to directive techniques if the situation demands.

So the counsellor in this counselling makes use of directive and non-directive counselling and also of any other type which may be considered useful for the purpose of modifying the ideas and attitudes of the counsellee. Hence it is possible for the counsellor to alternate between directive and non-directive techniques depending upon the requirements of the situation.

It can be said that directive and non-directive counselling are at the opposite ends of the pole of guidance. It is eclectic counselling that bridges the gap between the two and makes adjustment between directive and non-directive techniques.

Features/Characteristics of Eclectic Counselling:

This counselling has the following features or characteristics of it:

1. Methods of counselling may change from counsellee to counsellee/counsellee or even with the same client from time to time.

2. Flexibility is the key note of this counselling.

3. Freedom of choice and expression is open to both, the counsellor and the client.

4. The client and the philosophical framework are adjusted to serve the purposes of the relationship.

5. Experience of mutual confidence and faith in the relationship are basic.

6. Feelings of comfort are essential.

Competence of the Counsellor in Eclectic Counselling:

Eclectic counselling assumes high level competence and should never be used as a rationalization by the counsellor for indiscriminate use or neglect of particular procedures advocated in other philosophies. The competent eclectic counsellor is well acquainted with all other major theories of philosophies in counselling and uses this knowledge in choosing techniques and in the establishment of a positive working relationship with the client. A rejection of any philosophical framework is justified by the counsellor if he had a better way to achieve the task in hand.

The counsellor must be aware of the fact that problems differ from individual to individual. The counsellee or the pupil must be accepted as he is and attempts be made to understand him. Each problem must be treated as unique. All pre-conceived notions of dealing with all the counsellee’s personal problems in the same way should be discarded. The task of the counsellor is very difficult.

He has to shift and interpret all the matter that is available about the individual. The worker should take care in working with the pupils to be warm, co-ordinal, friendly, responsive and understanding but at the same time will be impersonal and objective. To be impersonal and objective, however he needs not to be cold, indifferent or not interested.

Disadvantages of Eclectic Counseling

1) Some people are of the view that eclectic counseling is vague, opportunistic and superficial.

2) Both directive and non-directive counseling cannot be mixed together.

3) In this, the question arises how much freedom should be given to the client? For this there is non-definite rule.

4) The problem with an eclectic orientation is that counselors often do more harm than good if they have little or no understanding about what is helping the client.