403, Shool Admin & Management

Main Function of School:

(1) Conservation and promotion culture:

The school conserves the valuable culture, tradition, values of the society and helps in promoting and developing these with the rolling of the time. It also spreads the store of culture to the next generation.

(2) All-round development of the individual:

For all-round development of the individual school has a package of programmes. Through its different activities, it draws out the hidden potentialities of the child and develops them in a proper way.

(3) Development of higher values of life:

School helps in developing and cultivating good and higher values like truth, sympathy, love, cooperation, etc. in child. Through different social interactions and moral teachings, it spreads the message of righteous living in a society.

(4) Development of social responsibility:

School is called a society in miniature. Because in schoolchild shares his feelings with various children coming from different strata. So he learns the lessons of social duty, responsibilities and understanding the feelings of others. So school helps in social change and social control.

(5) Citizenship training:

School creates the first civic society for the child. So child learns the duty and civic rights for the country as a responsible citizen. So school trains the lessons of citizenship to a child.

(6) Adjustability in society:

School prepares child to face the problems of the society. So proper adjustment and application of learned knowledge can be checked and guided by school. So the main function of the school is to develop adjustment capacity of an individual.

(7) Vocational training:

Through different activities, school provides training in different vocations. It also cultivates the values of dignity of work and labor. It prepares children to face any challenge in the future to solve their bare necessities.

The role of school cannot be confined with these lines. In modern days, the role of school has been increasing day by day. It is called the hub of learning. Every developed state gives first priority to the schools for total national development. Really, school is now a prestigious institution in the society, which can be called a man-making factory.

The Functions of Education

Functional theory stresses the functions that education serves in fulfilling a society’s various needs. Perhaps the most important function of education is socialization. If children need to learn the norms, values, and skills they need to function in society, then education is a primary vehicle for such learning. Schools teach the three Rs, as we all know, but they also teach many of the society’s norms and values. In the United States, these norms and values include respect for authority, patriotism (remember the Pledge of Allegiance?), punctuality, individualism, and competition. Regarding these last two values, American students from an early age compete as individuals over grades and other rewards. The situation is quite the opposite in Japan, where, as we saw in Chapter 4 “Socialization”, children learn the traditional Japanese values of harmony and group belonging from their schooling (Schneider & Silverman, 2010). They learn to value their membership in their homeroom, or kumi, and are evaluated more on their kumi’s performance than on their own individual performance. How well a Japanese child’s kumi does is more important than how well the child does as an individual.

A second function of education is social integration. For a society to work, functionalists say, people must subscribe to a common set of beliefs and values. As we saw, the development of such common views was a goal of the system of free, compulsory education that developed in the 19th century. Thousands of immigrant children in the United States today are learning English, U.S. history, and other subjects that help prepare them for the workforce and integrate them into American life. Such integration is a major goal of the English-only movement, whose advocates say that only English should be used to teach children whose native tongue is Spanish, Vietnamese, or whatever other language their parents speak at home. Critics of this movement say it slows down these children’s education and weakens their ethnic identity (Schildkraut, 2005).

A third function of education is social placement. Beginning in grade school, students are identified by teachers and other school officials either as bright and motivated or as less bright and even educationally challenged. Depending on how they are identified, children are taught at the level that is thought to suit them best. In this way they are prepared in the most appropriate way possible for their later station in life. Whether this process works as well as it should is an important issue, and we explore it further when we discuss school tracking shortly.

Social and cultural innovation is a fourth function of education. Our scientists cannot make important scientific discoveries and our artists and thinkers cannot come up with great works of art, poetry, and prose unless they have first been educated in the many subjects they need to know for their chosen path.

Education also involves several latent functions, functions that are by-products of going to school and receiving an education rather than a direct effect of the education itself. One of these is child care. Once a child starts kindergarten and then first grade, for several hours a day the child is taken care of for free. The establishment of peer relationships is another latent function of schooling. Most of us met many of our friends while we were in school at whatever grade level, and some of those friendships endure the rest of our lives. A final latent function of education is that it keeps millions of high school students out of the full-time labor force. This fact keeps the unemployment rate lower than it would be if they were in the labor force.

SCHOOL BUILDING NORMS

Building norms issued by CBSE:

1.        They are effective from 28th January, 1988 with modifications/amendments from time to time.

2.        The institution must have a minimum of 2000 sq mtr campus area of its own.

2. Provided that the school may be graded as Category A+, Category A & Category B School as per the following criteria:

Category A+ School   -     Permanently affiliated school

Category A School     -     Provisionally affiliated school with land of atleast 2 acres or of such measurement as has been permitted under Rule 3(ii) (b),(c), (d) & (e) below.

Category B School      -     Provisionally affiliated school with following criterion:

b)        does not possess land as per Category ‘A’ but has not less than 1.5 acre of land also satisfies the following:

•250 sq. mtr. of area + 1 sq.mtr. for every student on the rolls (for a middle school).

• 500 sq.mtr. of area +1 sq.mtr. for every student on the rolls (for a Secondary school).

• 750 sq.mtr. of area +1 sq.mtr. for every student on the rolls (for a Senior Secondary school)

c)        satisfies all the other conditions of Affiliation Bye-Laws

In cities with a population exceeding 15 lacs, the land should not be less than one acre with adequate building & arrangement with other institution/organization for imparting Physical & Health Education and for conducting games, to the satisfaction of the Board.

In hilly areas, the land should not be less than one acre. The norms as prescribed by the Planning Commission shall be applicable for determining the hilly areas.

Infrastructure

The infrastructural facilities should be as follows:- .

(i)    Class rooms - minimum size should be 8 m x 6 m (approx 500. sq. ft.).

(ii)   Science Labs. (Composite for Secondary or/and separate Physics, Chemistry and Biology for Senior Secondary)- minimum size should be 9 m.x 6 m. each(approx 600 sq. ft) and fully equipped.

(iii) Library - minimum size should be 14 m.x 8 m. fully equipped and with reading room facility.

(iv)  Computer Lab. and Math Lab. - No minimum size is prescribed, however, the school should have separate provision for each.

(v)   Rooms for extra curricular activities - either separate rooms for music, dance, arts & sports or one multi purpose hall for all these activities should be available. Physical Facilities

Physical Facilities

1.   Class rooms should be adequate in size. The minimum floor space should at least be 1 sq. metre per student.

2.   Every institution will provide proper facilities like ramps, toilets for wheel chair users and auditory signals in elevators, in lifts.

3.   ”The School should scrupulously observe prescription from the Municipal Authority/District Collectorate/Transport Department regarding drinking water, fire safety and transport precautions in the school. A certificate from the Municipal/Fire/Transport Authority regarding sanitary conditions, water/fire/transport safety should be submitted along with the application. A fresh certificate regarding fulfillment of these requirements should be obtained and submitted to the Board every five years.

4.   Adequate ground to create out door facilities for a 200 metre track.

5.   Every school should have atleast one adequately equipped Computer Lab with a minimum of 10 computers or computer student ratio of 1:20 and proper software.

Library

1. The Library should be well equipped and spacious. It should have at least five books(other than text books) per student in its stock subject to a minimum of 1500 at the beginning. It shall not stock notes, examination guides or keys of any kind. In the selection of books, norms or guidelines provided by the Board should be followed and purchases should be made in consultation with the subject teachers.

2. The school should subscribe to sufficient number of newspapers and magazines. Atleast 15 magazines suitable for students and professional needs of teachers should be subscribed to.

Building norms issued by CISCE:

a) The school infrastructure should be adequate for accommodating the numbers and gender of pupils attending the School.

b) Classes will be conducted only on the premises for which affiliation is granted as per the No Objection

c) The school should have a minimum of 2000 sq.metres of land, suitable buildings constructed on a part of the land and proper playgrounds on the remaining land with adequate facilities as prescribed from time to time by the Council.

The school should have a well-equipped library for the use of its staff and pupils. It should have at least five books (other than specimen copies of textbooks) per student in its stock, subject to a minimum of 2500 books in the beginning. It shall not stock notes, examination

There should be sufficiently large classrooms {preferably having area of 37 sq.mtr. (400 sq.ft.) per classroom} to accommodate all sections or classes.

There should be separate laboratories for Physics, Chemistry Biology and Computers. The school should have adequate infrastructure for teaching all other Subjects.

The school should have appropriate furniture, adequate equipment and apparatus for teaching

Building norms issued by MHRD

Schools buildings constructed under the programme school should have the following facilities:

•    4 class room for 2 section school / 2 classroom for 1 section school

•    1 Science Laboratory

•    Laboratories for vocational education

•    Headmaster room

•    Office room

•    Computer room

•    Art/craft/culture room

•    Library room

•    Separate toilet blocks for boys and girls

•    Drinking water facility

Plinth area for 1 section and 2 section school should be 540 sq.mt. and 672 sq.mt. respectively considering the above items of constructions

While planning for strengthening of existing schools following points to be considered:

 The gaps with respect to infrastructure in the existing school should be identified based on the UDISE data.

 While adding infrastructure to a school, it should be ensured that all the required infrastructure works are planned in a single go. This will ensure a school once covered has all the required facilities. (Whole school Approach). In this approach all the aspects like ramps, railing, and toilet for CWSN, labs for vocational trades etc. needs to be planned in single year.

 The components that can be undertaken under the programme are listed below with specifications to be followed:

Rooms Sizes

Class rooms/                    Class Room- Pupil Ratio: 1:40 Minimum ratio :1:25 Class Room size: as per Additional classrooms                       State norm, or plinth area of 66 sq. mt.

Science Laboratory          One Integrated Science Laboratory- for Physics, Biology & Mathematics. Room size: as per State norm or 66 sq.mt of plinth area. Cost of construction will furniture, fixtures, fittings, circulation area (verandah) etc.

Office Room                   1 office room for schools where there is no office room In case there is one office room for elementary and secondary room, it would be available under SSA- RTE

School Personnel

It truly does take an army to raise and educate a child. The most recognizable employees within a school district are the teachers. However, they represent only a portion of the personnel that works within the school. School personnel can be divided into three distinct categories including school leaders, faculty, and support staff. Here we examine the essential roles and responsibilities of key school personnel.

School Leaders

Board of Education – The board of education is ultimately responsible for most decision making in a school. The board of education is made up of elected community members most usually consisting of 5 members. The eligibility requirement for a board member varies by state. The board of education generally meets once per month. They are responsible for hiring the district superintendent. They also generally take into account the recommendations of the superintendent in the decision-making process.

Superintendent – The superintendent oversees the daily operations of the school district as a whole. They are generally responsible for providing recommendations to the school board in a variety of areas. The superintendent’s primary responsibility is handling the financial matters of the school district. They also lobby on behalf of their district with the State government.

Assistant Superintendent – A smaller district may not have any assistant superintendents, but a larger district may have several. The assistant superintendent oversees a specific part or parts of a school district’s daily operations. For example, there may be an assistant superintendent for curriculum and another assistant superintendent for transportation. The assistant superintendent is overseen by the district superintendent.

Principal – The principal oversees the daily operations of an individual school building within a district. The principal is primarily in charge overseeing the students and faculty/staff in that building. They are also responsible for building community relationships within their area. The principal is often responsible for interviewing prospective candidates for job openings within their building as well as making recommendations to the superintendent for hiring a new teacher.

Assistant Principal – A smaller district may not have any assistant principals, but a large district may have several. The assistant principal may oversee a specific part or parts of a school’s daily operations. For example, there may be an assistant principal who oversees all student discipline either for the entire school or for a particular grade depending on the size of the school. The assistant principal is overseen by the building principal.

Athletic Director – The athletic director oversees all of the athletic programs in the district. The athletic director is often the person in charge of all the athletic scheduling. They also often have their hand in the hiring process of new coaches and/or the removal of a coach from their coaching duties. The athletic director also oversees the spending of the athletic department.

School Faculty

Teacher – Teachers are responsible for providing the students they serve with direct instruction in the area of content in which they specialize. The teacher is expected to use the district-approved curriculum to meet state objectives within that content area. The teacher is responsible for building relationships with parents of children which they serve.

Counselor – A counselor’s job is often multifaceted. A counselor provides counseling services for students who may struggle academically, have a rough home life, may have gone through a difficult situation, etc. A counselor also provides academic counseling setting student schedules, getting students scholarships, preparing them for life after high school, etc. In some cases, a counselor may also serve as the testing coordinator for their school.

Special Education – A special education teacher is responsible for providing the students they serve with direct instruction in the area of content with which the student has an identified learning disability. The special education teacher is responsible for writing, reviewing, and implementing all Individual Education Plans (IEP) for students served. They also are responsible for scheduling meetings for IEP’s.

Speech Therapist – A speech therapist is responsible for identifying students who need speech related services. They are also responsible for providing the specific services needed to those students identified. Finally, they are responsible for writing, reviewing, and implementing all speech related IEP’s.

Occupational Therapist – An occupational therapist is responsible for identifying students who need occupational therapy related services. They are also responsible for providing the specific services needed to those students identified.

Physical Therapist - A physical therapist is responsible for identifying students who need physical therapy related services. They are also responsible for providing the specific services needed to those students identified.

Alternative Education – An alternative education teacher is responsible for providing the students they serve with direct instruction. The students they serve often cannot function in a regular classroom often because of discipline related issues, so the alternative education teacher has to be extremely structured and a strong disciplinarian.

Library/Media Specialist – A library media specialist oversees the operation of the library including the organization, ordering of books, checking out of books, the return of books, and re-shelving of books. The library media specialist also works directly with the classroom teachers to provide assistance in anything associated with the library. They also are responsible for teaching students library related skills and creating programs that develop lifelong readers.

Reading Specialist – A reading specialist works with students who have been identified as struggling readers in a one-on-one or small group setting. A reading specialist assists the teacher in identifying students who are struggling readers as well as finding the specific area of reading which they struggle. A reading specialist’s goal is to get each student they work with on grade level for reading.

Intervention Specialist – An intervention specialist is much like a reading specialist. However, they are not just limited to reading and may assist students who struggle in many areas including reading, math, science, social studies, etc. They often fall under the direct supervision of the classroom teacher.

Coach – A coach oversees the day to day operations of a specific sports program. Their duties can include organizing practice, scheduling, ordering equipment, and coaching games. They are also in charge of specific game planning including scouting, game strategy, substitution patterns, player discipline, etc.

Assistant Coach – An assistant coach helps the head coach in whatever capacity the head coach directs them. They often suggest game strategy, assist in organizing practice, and helps with scouting as needed.

School Support Staff

Administrative Assistant – An administrative assistant is one of the most important positions in the entire school. A school administrative assistant often knows the day-to-day operations of a school as well as anyone. They are also the person who communicates most often with parents. Their job includes answering phones, mailing letters, organizing files, and a host of other duties. A good administrative assistant screens for the school administrator and makes their job easier.

Encumbrance Clerk – The encumbrance clerk has one of the most difficult jobs in the entire school. The encumbrance clerk is not only in charge of school payroll and billing, but a host of other financial responsibilities. The encumbrance clerk has to be able to account for every cent a school has spent and received. An encumbrance clerk must be organized and must stay current with all laws dealing with school finance.

School Nutritionist – A school nutritionist is responsible for creating a menu that meets state nutrition standards for all meals served at school. They are also responsible for ordering the food that will be served. They also collect and keep up with all monies taken in and spent by the nutrition program. A school nutritionist is also responsible for keeping track of which students are eating and for which students qualify for free/reduced lunches.

Teacher‘s Aide – A teacher’s aide assist a classroom teacher in a variety of areas that can include making copies, grading papers, working with small groups of students, contacting parents, and a variety of other tasks.

Paraprofessional – A paraprofessional is a trained individual who assists a special education teacher with their day-to-day operations. A paraprofessional may be assigned to one particular student or may help with a class a whole. A paraprofessional works in support of the teacher and does not provide direct instruction.

Nurse – A school nurse provides general first aid for students in the school. The nurse may also administer medication to students who need it or are required medication. A school nurse keeps pertinent records on when they see students, what they saw, and how they treated it. A school nurse may also teach students about health and health-related issues.

Cook – A cook is responsible for the preparation and serving of food to the entire school. A cook is also responsible for the process of cleaning up the kitchen and the cafeteria.

Custodian – A custodian is responsible for the day-to-day cleaning of the school building as a whole. Their duties include vacuuming, sweeping, mopping, cleaning bathrooms, emptying trash, etc. They may also assist in other areas such as mowing, moving heavy items, etc.

Maintenance – Maintenance is responsible for keeping all the physical operations of a school running. If something is broke, then maintenance is responsible for repairing it. These may including electrical and lighting, air and heating, and mechanical issues.

Computer Technician – A computer technician is responsible for assisting school personnel with any computer issue or question that may arise. Those may include issues with email, internet, viruses, etc. A computer technician should provide service and maintenance to all school computers to keep them running so that they may be used as needed. They are also responsible for server maintenance and the installation of filter programs and features.

Bus Driver – A bus driver provides safe transportation for students to and from school.

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE PRINCIPALS, TEACHERS AND OTHERS SCHOOL PERSONNEL

Duties and responsibilities of the Principal

1.   Perform his duties to school of discharging his responsibilities in accordance with the philosophy, goals and objectives of the school.

2. Be accountable for the efficient and effective administration and management of the school.

3.   Develop and maintain a healthy school atmosphere conducive to the promotions and reservation of academic freedom .

4. Assure and maintain professional behavior in his work and dealing with students, teachers, academic non-teaching personnel, administrative staff, and parents.

5. Render adequate reports to teachers, academic non teaching personnel and non academic staff on their actual performance and counsel them on ways of improving the same.

6.   Observe due process, fairness, promptness, privacy, constructiveness and consistency in disciplining his teachers and other personnel .

7.   Maintain adequate records and submit required reports to the Department

Duties and Obligation of Teachers

1. Meet and instruct assigned classes in the locations and at the times designated.

2. Develop and maintain a classroom environment conducive to effective learning within the limits of the resources provided by the division, with responsibility for the order and progress of his/her classes.

3. Prepare for classes assigned, and show written evidence of preparation upon request of the immediate supervisor.

4. Assist students in setting and maintaining standards of classroom behavior.

5. Take all necessary and reasonable precautions to protect students, equipment, materials, and facilities with responsibility for the neatness of his/her room and the

6. Evaluate student progress on a regular basis.

7. Employ a variety of instructional techniques and instructional media, consistent with the physical limitations of the location provided and the needs and capabilities of the individuals or student groups involved.

8. Maintain accurate, complete, and correct records asrequired by law.

9. Be available to students and parents for education -related purposes outside the instructional day when required or requested to do so under the reasonable term

10. Comply with and enforce school rules, administrative regulations, and School Board policies.

11. Attend and participate in faculty meetings as well as other professional meetings called by the administrative staff.

12. Cooperate with other members of staff in planning instructional goals, objectives, and methods.

13. Assist in selecting books, equipment, and other instructional materials.

14. Establish and maintain cooperative relations with others .

15. Accomplish reasonable special assignments as assigned by the principal.

16. Provide for his/her own professional growth through an On going program of study, including workshops, seminars, conferences, and/or advanced course work at institutionsof higher learning.

17. Perform other school duties as assigned.

Obligations of Academic Non- Teaching Personnel

1.   Improve himself professionally by keeping abreast of the latest trends and techniques in his profession.

2.   Assume, promote and maintain professional attitude towards his work, students, teachers, administrators and administrative staff and relate with them in supportive and cordial manner

3.   Promote and maintain an atmosphere conducive to service learning

the basic principles of time table construction?

Time table gives a clear vision and comprehensive picture of school activities i.e., what work is being done during which period, where, by whom and when. It is a complicated task because it is determined by a number of factors and conditions which change from place to place and from school to school.

The following principles have to be kept in mind during preparation of a good time table:

(i) Type of School:

We see firstly whether the school is girls/boys oriented or co-educational, rural or urban, secondary or senior secondary. We determine the nature of activities involved in the school accordingly special needs of a school is to be taken into consideration while framing the time table.

(ii) Department Regulations:

The state department of education fixes length of the school year, and its terms i.e., when an academic year starts and when it ends, the duration of the school day and even the number of periods for each subject.

(iii) Amount of time available:

Time table is framed keeping in view available time i.e., the length of the school year and total number of holidays.

(iv) Principle of Justice:

While assigning work, special care has to be taken that

(a) Each teacher is assigned those subjects who he/she feels his/her best qualified to teach.

(b) He/she does not teach in more than two departments.

(c)Teaching load for every teacher is about equal to that of others.

(v) Relative Importance and Difficulty Value of Subjects:

The time dedicated to a subject should be at per the importance of it and its difficulty value. There are certain socio-economic considerations that determine the importance of a subject in the school curriculum and accordingly, time is allotted to them in the time table.

(vi) Incidence of Fatigue:

The element of fatigue influences the construction of school time-table a number of ways. Children arc fatigued at certain periods or certain days. It is not only physical but also psychological in nature. It results in a definite weakening of attention and diminishing interest and effects of learning.

(a) Work Rate: Some subjects are more fatiguing than others. They involve more mental strain and effort. Such subjects are taught during early hours when the student's mind is fresh.

(b) Mental freshness is the greatest in the morning. This is also true after recess. The order of subjects causing strain is as follows:

(i) Mathematics

(ii) English

(iii) Hindi

(iv) Science

(v) Social Sciences

(vi) Science Practical's

(vii) Drawing/Physical Education.

(c) The fatigue principle is true for days of the week also. Tuesdays and Wednesdays are considered to be the best days in which maximum work can be done.

(d) Younger children are more quickly fatigued. The duration of a class period for them does not exceed 30 to 35 minutes.

(e) Seasons too cause fatigue. In summer due to heat we do not like to work.

(vii) Principle of Variety:

It has been seen experimentally that change of room, seat and posture usually is an antidote against weakness. It is applied on both students and teachers. Variety can be introduced in the following manners:

(a) No subject except science practical should be kept for two consecutive periods.

(b) The same class should not set in the same room for the whole day.

(c) The same teacher should not have two consecutive periods in the same class.

(d) If a subject is taught only 2/3 times a week, periods should follow at intervals.

(e)The physical training periods, science practical and drawing work allow a change.

(viii) Free Periods for Teachers:

We should provide free periods for teachers so as to increase their efficiency and also to provide time for their correction work.

(ix) Principle of Play and Recreation:

Careful attention needs to be given to provide for rest and recreation and provision for various co-curricular activities should also be made in the time table, to avoid monotony.

(x) Maximum Utilization of Resources:

The qualification, experience, room size should always be kept in mind so as to make the maximum use of all the resources and avoided wastage or under-utilization of resources.

(xi) Elasticity: The time table should have a flexibility so as to work the teachers smoothly.

DECISION MAKING

The task of "deciding" pervades the entire administrative organization. . . . A general theory of administration must include principles of organization that will insure correct decision making, just as it must include principles that will insure effective action.                  Herbert A. Simon

Decision making is an important and real aspect of organizational life. Its importance in leadership is widely acknowledged. Decision making is a fundamental element of organizational leadership. Research and discussion about decision making has amassed into “a vast, multidisciplinary literature”. The uncertain ontological status of ‘decision’ as a construct does not reduce the importance of decisions and decision making as phenomena to those working in organizations. “Decisions are a significant part of organizational processes” and ‘“decision-making” plays a central role in the actualization of the organization strategic paradigm’.

A decision is:

·         A judgement, a choice

·         An intendedly rational human choice leading to human action embodying the logic of consequence

·         A commitment to action, a discrete and concrete phenomenon driven by rationality

·         Deliberative and decisive social action, concerned with choosing what to do in the face of a problem

·         A decision is a conclusion about what we should do

·         “A decision is a conscious choice made between two or more competing alternatives”

      Decisions are often described and understood as conscious deliberate choices made by an individual at the end of a process conventionally assumed to be of a rational nature. Decisions can be hard to pin down and are not as identifiable and discernable as assumed. Not all decisions are discretely observable and I echo the question “must there always be a clear point as well as a clear place of decision?” Decision makers do not necessarily recognize that they are making decisions. They may be utilizing intuitive or heuristic processes that are implicit, tacit, or non-conscious. Or they may be aware of using intuition for example, but do not deem the resulting outcome a ‘proper’ decision.

Decision making is a process of selecting formal choice among the given options. For an effective decision making process, one must be in a stable mind to weigh both positive and negative options. One should determine which option will suit that particular situation. In an organization decision making will be done by the higher authorities upon the analysis and critical thinking of the company. The ability to choose the right choice depending on the problem it has, is the matter of decision making. It is important to understand the process of individual decision making. When a situation comes to decide for an optional way then the individual must concentrate on the good decision rather than wavering. The fact is that people with high range of emotions are tending to take good decisions quickly.

Variables of Decision Making:

One can improve decision making skills by recognizing some of the important variables to select a right choice. They are as follows:

a. Levels of decision:

The level of decision deals with the questions that are faced during the decision making process. Here the possibility is that the decision made is accompanied with the risk. One must select the option by asking certain questions such as:

How important is the decision?

How complex is the situation?

How much critical is the decision making is?

b. Styles of decision:

These styles deal with degree of participation in the process. In corporate world participation is considered as time consuming activity. It involves arguments, debate to prepare evidence for good decision making. Here the questions that arise are:

To which extent others should be involved in taking right choice?

What are all the conditions that are involved in decision making?

Which technique is opted to select the right decision?

c. Decision process that is rational:

Rational is something that is agreeable to a certain reason. It acts as a classic approach of decision making. It has sequential steps and a desired solution. It deals with problem identification and corresponding alternative method to solve it. Here the analysis of the problem is done in different factor to determine the decision that is to be taken.

d. Decision process that is intuitive:

Intuitive decision is the mindset of the people upon how the judgment has to be given based on the consequences of the problem. It is less structured that relates to the feelings, perceptional judgment rather than analyzing the fact. The decision may not be either or but an exact solution will be obtained.

NATURE OF DECISION MAKING

Decision making is the focus of analysis and attempts to define it as a construct. The rational paradigm is often evident as in Tarter and Hoy’s (2010) description of decision making is “rational, deliberative, purposeful action, beginning with the development of a decision strategy and moving through implementation and appraisal of results”. They claim this process is common to all organizations. Barret, Balloud and Weinstein (2005) explain their conception of decision making as the process of “using critical thinking skills to optimize a decision” echoing the common normative conception in the literature of decision making as a rational problem solving process. The rational model seems reductionist and simplistic, trying to capture decision making in a neat narrow framework. This prompted Simon’s (1959) caution: “The very complexity that has made a theory of the decision-making process essential has made its construction exceedingly difficult”. The process involves interactions among decision makers for example, a key component in shaping the making of decisions. The complex nature of organizational decisional behaviour as webs of activity and linkages is captured by Langley et al’s (1995) phrase “issue networks” (p.274). Intuition, emotions, values and heuristics all influence the way decisions are arrived at. These and other processes characterized as nonrational, play a part in the making of decisions.

DECISION MAKING’S IMPORTANCE

Decision making is perceived as a key process or activity in organizations and what leaders ‘do’. “Decision making lies at the heart of managerial behavior.” Decision making is an important construct for all members of organizations to define themselves, their roles and their expectations of each other. People in organizations tend to “think and act in terms of decision-making”. Decision making is characterized as one of the eight key elements of educational leadership. More effective ways of decision making are viewed as essential given current challenges such as rapid technological change, globalization, hyper-competition, and various other social, cultural and economic developments. Barrett et al (2005) refer to “a paradigm shift in decision making” driven by the need to respond to such challenges advocating a greater need for creativity and collaboration in decision making. In educational leadership now alternative forms of decision making are promoted which may question the leader’s traditional established role as the ultimate or sole decision maker and perhaps make the leader more of a ‘ratifier’ of decisions arrived at in collaborative contexts.

Administrative decision making is a dynamic process that solves some organizational problems and, in the process, often creates others. Decision making is a general pattern of action found in the rational administration of all functional and task areas in organizations. Values are an integral part of decision making. Decision making is a major responsibility of all administrators, but until decisions are converted into action they are only good intentions. Deciding is a sine qua non of educational administration because the school, like all formal organizations, is basically a decision-making structure.

Decision making is a major responsibility of all administrators, but until decisions are converted into action they are only good intentions. Deciding is a sine qua non of educational administration because the school, like all formal organizations, is basically a decision-making structure. Decision making is one of the most important activities in which school administrators are engaged on a daily basis. In the same view, the success of any school is critically linked to effective decisions. This is because decision making is so important and can have such significant effects on the operation of schools and any other organization. It has been suggested by a lot of scholars that, administration is decision making. It would be a mistake however, to conclude that only administrators make decisions. Increasingly, important decisions are being made in schools by even non-administrative personnel. Thus, while decision making is an important administrative process, it is fundamentally a people process and everyone should be involved during the decision making process. 

Decision making is defined as a process of making a choice from a number of alternatives so as to achieve a desired result. Important to note is that, this definition has three key major elements. Firstly, decision making involves making a choice from a number of options. This literally means that, there should be options for a person to embark on a journey of selecting which among the choices will be the best. Secondly, decision making is a process that involves more than simply a final choice from among alternatives. This would be in a situation where by, if the school management for example decides to renovate the existing high school rather than build a new one; this action follows a certain pertain for everything to be reached. Finally, the "desired result" mentioned in the definition involves a purpose or target resulting from the mental activity that the decision maker engages in to reach a final decision. It is suffice to also mention that, the quality of the decisions made is a predominant factor in how the superintendent, for example, views a principal’s performance, or how a principal views a department head or team leader’s performance. Furthermore, decision making affects the performance of a school and the welfare of its stakeholders such as the students, teachers, parents, and the community.

THE NATURE OF DECISION MAKING PROCESS

The nature of decision making is that, it presents rational choices that have to be chosen. This means that, managerial decision making is the process of making a conscious choice between two or more coherent options in order to select the one that will produce the most desirable consequences (benefits), that is on the other hand relative to unwanted consequences (costs). If there is only one alternative, then it means that there is nothing to decide. In the context of educational administration, it is important to note that, decisions are made at all levels of school organization. For example, the superintendent makes decisions concerning a school district's goals and strategies. Then principals make tactical decisions concerning those goals and strategies to accomplish them in relation to their own buildings. Department heads and team leaders then make curricular and operational decisions to carry out the day-to-day activities of a department or unit. And, finally, classroom teachers make decisions in their classrooms for their pupils.

According to Towler (2010), the decision making process can be broken down into six steps as shown in the diagram below. It is the same processes stages that should be adopted by the school manager so as to improve decision making in a school organization.

(Figure 1)

Identifying the Problem

Generating Alternatives

Evaluating Alternatives

Choosing an Alternative

Implementing the Decision

Evaluating Decision Effectiveness

Diagram of the decision making process (Towler, 2010)

From the figure, it has been noted that, the first stage is problem identification. After a problem is identified, alternative solutions to the problem are generated. These are carefully evaluated, and the best alternative is chosen for implementation. The implemented alternative is then evaluated over time to assure its immediate and continued effectiveness. If difficulties arise at any stage in the process, the art of deliberate recycling may be effected so as to improve the decision making process. Just on this first stage of decision making, it is observed that, decision making is a logical sequence of activities. That is, before alternatives are generated, the problem must be identified, and so on.

IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM

The central purpose of schools is to achieve certain goals of which one of them is teaching and learning. Within the school, each department has its own goals, such as increasing test scores, reducing dropouts, and/or developing new approaches to teaching. Establishing these goals becomes the basis for identifying problem areas, deciding on courses of action, and evaluating the decision outcomes. For this reason, a decision is said to be effective if it helps a school administrator to achieve a specific objective or set of goals for the school. Failure to achieve a desired goal becomes a problem, and the school administrator is ultimately responsible for solving it by first identifying it, and this is one of the major steps which the school administrator should undertake so as to improve decision making in a school organisation.

Effective decision makers are keenly aware of the importance of properly identifying the problem and understanding the problem situation. Kepner and Tregoe (2005) developed a method of problem analysis that suggests that the first step in decision making, identifying the problem, is the most important step. According to these authors, providing a good definition of the problem affects the quality of the decision. Their method suggests that it is often easier to define what the problem is not, rather than what it is. Also, the problem and its solution are prioritized with other problems, to clarify its relative importance. The final step is searching for cause-effect relationships.

In summary, their method of problem analysis includes: (1) problem identification, (2) definition of what the problem is and is not, (3) prioritizing the problem, and (4) testing for cause-effect relationships. By following this critical step, the school administrator is assured of improving decision making in a school organization in an effective manner.

School administrators scan the world around them to determine whether the school is progressing satisfactorily toward its goals. For example, school administrators survey students, teachers, parents, and community members using instruments to measure satisfaction, organizational climate, and the like. Other information may come from formal information systems, such as periodic accounting reports, Management Information System (MIS) reports, and organizational plans designed to discover problems before they become too serious.

In trying to improve decision making in a school organization, administrators must also define the situation, which is partly a matter of determining how a specific problem arose. This is an important stage, because the situation definition plays a major role in subsequent steps. Suppose, for example, that a school has had decreasing test scores for the last two years. One principal might define this situation as the result of a changing student population in the school attendance area and begin to search for new approaches to teaching these students, who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Another principal might define the situation as a case of an inappropriate match between what is taught and what is measured that is, placing the blame on the achievement test being used.

GENERATING ALTERNATIVES

Once the problem has been identified, the second step in the decision-making process is to generate alternatives to the problem. In developing these alternative solutions, school administrators first must specify the goals that they hope to achieve through their decision. Are they trying to reduce the dropout rate, improve the quality of instruction, increase test scores, or something else? Once school administrators have determined their goals, they can search for alternative means of reaching them. Information must be collected regarding each of the alternatives and their likely consequences. More specifically, the school administrator must seek to learn as much as possible concerning the likelihood that each alternative will result in the achievement of various outcomes, and the extent to which those outcomes will contribute to the achievement of the goals and objectives being sought.

Ideally, the school administrator should seek to generate as many alternatives as possible and should attempt to ensure that the alternatives are relatively diverse that is, not highly similar to one another. The extent of the search for alternatives is limited by the importance of the decision, the cost and value of additional information needed to evaluate alternatives, and the number of people affected by the decision.

The more important the decision, the more attention is directed to developing alternatives. For example, if the decision involves where to build a new school, a great deal of time and effort will be devoted to identifying the best location. On the other hand, if the problem is to select a colour to paint the classrooms in the new high school, less time and effort will be devoted to the activity.

EVALUATING ALTERNATIVES

The third step in the decision-making process is evaluating each of the alternatives generated in step 2. In evaluating an alternative, it contends that school administrators must ask at least these following three questions:

1.      Is the alternative feasible?

2.      Is it a satisfactory alternative?

3.      What impact will it have on people?

The first question whether the alternative is feasible simply means: Can it be done? For example, if one alternative requires a general layoff of school faculty but the school management has a collective bargaining agreement that prohibits such layoffs, that alternative is not feasible. Similarly, if a school district has limited capital, alternatives that require large capital outlays are not feasible, unless funds can be borrowed to meet the capital-outlay requirements.

The second question concerns the extent to which the alternative is satisfactory that is, the extent to which it addresses the problem. For example, suppose a principal wants to expand the curriculum by 25%. One alternative is to implement a trimester schedule. On closer examination, however, the principal may discover that the plan would expand the curriculum by only 15% and that such a modest expansion may also negatively affect the quality of the program. The principal may decide to implement the trimester plan anyway and search for other ways to achieve the remaining 10% expansion in the curriculum and find ways to maintain the quality of the program. Or he/she may decide to drop the alternative from consideration entirely.

The third question addresses the impact of an alternative on school personnel. In trying to improve decision making in a school organization, the manager ought to see to it that, the alternative that is chosen must be acceptable to those who must live with the consequences of the decision. Failure to meet this condition is the single most likely reason for failure of the decision-making process to solve problems. For this reason, questions of acceptability of a proposed alternative should be of great concern to the principal. On the one hand, even a mediocre solution to the problem may prove effective if it is implemented with enthusiasm and commitment. On the other hand, a technically correct alternative may fail to succeed if implementation is half-hearted.

CHOOSING AN ALTERNATIVE

Once the administrator has evaluated all of the alternatives, he or she attempts to choose the best alternative. The evaluation phase will have eliminated some of the alternatives, but in most cases two or more will remain. How does a school administrator decide which alternative is the best? One approach is to select the alternative that is feasible, satisfactory, and acceptable to the work group. Because most situations do not lend themselves to sophisticated mathematical analysis, the school administrator uses this available information in combination with judgment and intuition to make the decision and this is one of the methods the manager can improve decision making in a school organization.

The basis of judgment should be how close the outcomes or consequences of the alternatives come to achieving the desired goals of the school. For example, if the original goal was to decrease the dropout rate as much as possible, regardless of the costs, the school administrator might choose an alternative that will decrease the dropout rate significantly but that carries a high cost, rather than an alternative that would reduce dropouts only moderately at a minimal cost. However, if the original goal was to reduce the dropout rate by a moderate amount and if that goal is more desirable now, the second alternative might be a better choice.

Finally, the school administrator may be able to choose several alternatives simultaneously. Suppose, for example, a school principal is hiring a teacher of English and has two strong candidates for the position. One strategy that is frequently used is to offer the position to one candidate and keep the other candidate on hold. Should the first offer be rejected, the principal still has an acceptable alternative to filling the position.

IMPLEMENTING THE DECISION

After choosing an alternative, the school administrator faces the challenge of implementing the decision. At this stage, it is important to note that, a sound decision can fail if implemented poorly. It is useful, therefore, to consider some suggestions for successful implementation. In order for the school manager to effectively improve decision making in a school organisation, he or she could adopt some of these implementation strategies as listed and discussed below:

a)      School administrators need to make sure that the alternative is clearly understood. This is accomplished by communicating the decision to all involved staff. Effective communication is necessary for effectively implementing decisions.

b)      School administrators need to encourage acceptance of the alternative as a necessary course of action. Committees can help a school administrator achieve commitment. If the people who must carry out a decision participate in the process, they are more likely to endorse enthusiastically the outcome. Thus, the degree to which persons have or have not been involved in prior steps may substantially affect the success of the total decision-making process.

c)      School administrators need to provide enough resources to make the alternative succeed. School administrators set up budgets and schedules for the actions they have decided to undertake. Specifically, the decision may require acquiring office space, hiring staff, procuring funds, and the like.

d)     School administrators need to establish workable timelines. The school administrator now faces a “how much” and “how soon” decision. As part of the process of implementation, he must ask himself whether to move forward step by step or whether to take the entire action at once.

e)      School administrators need to assign responsibilities clearly. In other words, what should be done by whom? Because the solution of most administrative problems requires the combined effort of many school members, each person should understand what role he or she is to play during each phase of the implementation process.

DECISION-MAKING STRUCTURES

Once the administrator has determined that subordinates should be involved in deciding, the next question becomes how the process should proceed. Hoy and Tarter (1995) suggest five decision-making structures:

1. Group consensus: The administrator involves participants in the decision making, and then the group decides. All group members share equally as they generate and evaluate a decision, but total consensus is required before a decision can be made.

2. Group majority: The administrator involves participants in the decision making, and then the group decides by majority rule.

3. Group advisory: The administrator solicits the opinions of the entire group, discusses the implications of group suggestions, then makes a decision that may or may not reflect subordinates' desires.

4. Individual advisory: The administrator consults with subordinates individually who have expertise to inform the decision, then makes a decision that may or may not reflect their opinions.

5. Unilateral decision: The administrator makes the decision without consulting or involving subordinates in the decision.

How to Take Better Decisions?

One can take better decision by opting to the framework of the negatively influenced factors. An instinct should be present in everyone’s mind that the act of misunderstanding, misguidance may rule one’s life easily. Here are few techniques that help in making better decisions:

a. Increase in one’s knowledge:

It depends on the research that he/she has done to overcome the problem. Asking and experiencing questions and researching and consulting about the facts that are founded. One must try to maintain the objectivity of the analyzed facts.

b. Using the intuition:

The individual must try to take a decision based on the accumulated knowledge and experience gained in it. Sometimes these intuitions make one to take wrong decisions. It is also defined as a process of making decisions in non-sequential mode. One must have good gravitate styles to take an intuitive decision.

c. Consider multiple options:

Selecting multiple options, one may feel like playing a major role. Here all the list of options should be again considered as the alternative options. One must try to take right decision with a proper mindset. Distractions might lead to wrong decisions, so one must be always consider the pros and cons of the considered alternative.

d. Balancing risks and rewards:

The balance that is provided between risk and reward is to be maintained. While taking decisions one must be able to concentrate on the good deeds of the decision taken than the bad deeds. Once if the decision is taken the individual must think of the worst and best things that would happen.

Importance of Decision Making Skills for Students:

Decision making plays a vital role in the life of students. It diverts the students from falling into the trap that manages the students and save their career life. The ability to distinguish between choice and needs plays a vital role in the life of students. It promotes self-determination on how to make good decisions and choices. Here are few strategies that are to be followed while taking decisions. They are as follows:

1. Self-determination:

Self-determination is a combination of knowledge, belief, skills that enable students to become goal directed, autonomous behaviour and even self-regulated. This is enhanced with knowing and valuing oneself, planning, acting, experiencing and learning from the outcomes.

2. Learning disabilities:

These learning disabilities are experienced by the students for which they have to acknowledge the available resources. They should try to disclose their weakness with the concerned member as they may try to help the students.

3. Understanding strengths and weakness:

If the student is capable of understanding the strengths and weakness then they must try to make effective decisions and an alternative method to obtain it.

4. Helplessness:

Helplessness deals with effects of failure in which one can predict the past and future effects of failures. It often leads to lack of positive and effective decision making skills. The accuracy has to be found within the strength and weakness and even the preferences are taken into account.

5. Socialization skills:

Socialization skills are usually decided learned from special education or through individual tutoring methods. Majority of students fails in effective decision making skills. It helps in understanding and learning the skills of making different alternatives. These instructions enable the students to make them learn infused counseling of various programs, dealing with academic support classes that include extra-curricular activities. This instruction provides effective choices for figuring the disabilities within the students.

Common Challenges of Decision Making

Although following the steps outlined above will help you make more effective decisions, there are some pitfalls to look out for. Here are common challenges you may face, along with best practices to help you avoid them. 

·         Having too much or not enough information. Gathering relevant information is key when approaching the decision making process, but it’s important to identify how much background information is truly required. An overload of information can leave you confused and misguided, and prevents you from following your intuition.

In addition, relying on one single source of information can lead to bias and misinformation, which can have disastrous effects down the line.

·         Misidentifying the problem. In many cases, the issues surrounding your decision will be obvious. However, there will be times when the decision is complex and you aren’t sure where the main issue lies. Conduct thorough research and speak with internal experts who experience the problem firsthand in order to mitigate this. It will save you time and resources in the long run.

·         Overconfidence in the outcome. Even if you follow the steps of the decision making process, there is still a chance that the outcome won’t be exactly what you had in mind. That’s why it’s so important to identify a valid option that is plausible and achievable. Being overconfident in an unlikely outcome can lead to adverse results.

The process of examining your possibilities

Key Takeaways:

1. Administrative decision making is a dynamic process that solves some organizational problems and, in the process, often creates others.

2. Decision making is a general pattern of action found in the rational administration of all functional and task areas in organizations.

3. Values are an integral part of decision making.

4. The classical decision-making model uses a strategy of optimizing to maximize the achievement of goals, but the model is an ideal rather than an actual description of practice.

5. Satisficing is a pragmatic decision-making strategy that some administrators use to solve the problems of practice.

6. Most administrators probably use an incremental model of deciding; they muddle through.

7. An adaptive strategy of deciding unites the rationalism and comprehensiveness of satisficing with the flexibility and utility of the incremental model.

8. Like most complex processes, however, there is no single best way to decide; the best approach is the one that best fits the circumstances: a contingency approach is proposed.

9. Not all organizational decisions are rational; the garbage can model helps explain non-rational decision making.

10. Irrationality in decision making is often produced by stress; the Janis-Mann conflict model describes the pitfalls of defective decision making.

11. Sometimes participation improves the quality of decisions; sometimes it does not. The Hoy- Tarter model suggests when and how to involve subordinates in decision making.

12. One of the dangers of group decision making is group think, shared illusions about the correctness and invulnerability of the group.

13. Groupthink can be avoided by understanding its causes and by appropriately structuring group decision making.

Decision making is a major responsibility of all administrators, but until decisions are converted into action they are only good intentions. Deciding is a sine qua non of educational administration because the school, like all formal organizations, is basically a decision-making structure.

Process of Decision Making: Decision making process involves:

1. Defining the problem:

Problem definition has its own way of taking initial assessment. It has to be identified and analyzed from all the possible ways to sort it out. Here one can find the possibilities that dissect the problem. It helps to find the root cause of the problem and deal with possibilities to solve the problem. And analyze about the connection between the problem and the cause. This helps in developing better problem solving skills.

2. Clarifying the objectives:

The objectives deal with taking and collecting points on the address and hope of the problem. It changes the specific objectives in a concerned manner. It provides a separation between the ends to explore new objectives. It clarifies the path towards each objective. To test each objective, one must concentrate on capturing the interests.

3. Identifying the alternative methods:

One must think about possible ways to handle the situation. He/she must expand the search within the network and even the help should be obtained from the experts. One must take care of each and every objective and must know how and when to stop it. This identification of alternative methods must be dealt with already experienced people and the experts to take a worthy decision.

4. Analyzing the consequences:

One must analyze the consequences mentally by viewing him/her in the future. It involves process analysis that helps in solving problems from beginning till the end. It suggests what will happen in each stage of the problem analysis. It also eliminates the inferior alternatives. It provides a concise view of the remaining members of the organization. This supports both objectives and alternatives.

5. Making a right choice:

This stage comes after the analysis of consequences. The analysis has to be done until a right choice or a right alternative is found. On certain situation one must find simple alternative that will help in maximizing the benefits of the organization. One must try to choose an alternative accurately. The method chosen after detailed analysis will help in switch over to the other alternative without causing lot of trouble.

Resource Mobilization

Introduction

In general terms, Resource is understood as materials, goods or services that help fulfill the organization's needs. Materials, money, human (man and woman), means and time are Resources that are used by Group, organization and individuals to fulfill their objectives.

Mobilization is "the process of forming crowds, groups, associations, and organizations for the pursuit of collective goals

Concept of Resource Mobilization

Resource mobilization refers to all activities involved in securing new and additional resources for the organization. It also involves making better use of, and maximizing, existing resources.

Resource Mobilization is a process, which will identify the resources essential for the development, implementation and continuation of works for achieving the organization's mission. In real terms, Resource Mobilization means expansion of relations with the Resource Providers, the skills, knowledge and capacity for proper use of resources.

Resource Mobilization does not only mean use of money but it extensiveness denotes the process that achieves the mission of the Organization through the mobilization of knowledge in human, use of skills, equipment, services etc. It also means seeking new sources of resource mobilization and right and maximum use of the available resources.

The importance of resource mobilization can be stated for the following reasons.

ü  To diversify and expand resources.

ü  To run programs based on the genuine needs of the community.

ü  To develop new thinking and challenge the old traditions. 

ü  To enhance the dignity of one's Organization.

ü  It diversifies, expand its resources base and develop new thinking and challenge the old traditions in supporting the achievement of integration agenda.

ü  It identifies and analyse the resources available for the program priorities, policies and efficient budget allocation as stipulated in the Development Strategy.

ü  It provides continuity and stability to the organization and its works

Reasons for the requirement of Resource Mobilization

·         In order to continue with its work and achieve the works and targets. 

·         In order to begin or plan for new work.

·         In order to enhance or maintain relationship with the community, individuals, Government Organizations, Private organizations or donor agencies.

·         For the development of the various conditions of the Organization.

Types of Resources

Resource is required by every kind of organization to fulfill its objectives. It is essential to know the type of resource, its normal availability and the estimated cost to attain the require resources in order to carry our works as per the objectives of the Organization. On the basis of this information, the primary plans of resource mobilization should be established, checked and if needed repeated.

Money/Cash: Wealth/Cash is essential in order to run the existing programs, pay cost of goods and salary and to carry out new works. Wealth/Cash can be increased through various means like membership fees, grant received as per or without request, local fund, donations and various other sources such as NGO, external funding etc.

Human Resources: Every type of Organization will require people/personnel to ensure that the Organizational role and works are fulfilled. For essential human resources, the Organization will make different provisions. The Organization can appoint some permanent employees while the remaining appointments are made as per requirement. The permanent employees are taken as internal resources of the Organization while employees appointed for a specific time period are regarded as external resources. Many NGOs utilize dedicated and regular volunteer groups in order to fulfill the need of human resource.

Physical Goods: They are physical goods resources. For example, the Organization's activities or availability of the project are taken ahead together by the tools. It is essential for the Organization to spend on such goods in order to train on main activities of the project/organization. Examples of resources like office tools, furniture, training tools and raw goods, vehicles and other machines have been classified under the Physical Goods.

Free Service and Facilities: A non-profit-making Organization gives many physical goods, service and facilities only in minimum cost. As a result, provisions for free services in the Project/Organization should be made through community support. Apart from this, other Organizations provide the non-profit-making Organizations to use these facilities (Eg. Computer, Telephone, Photocopy Machine and Internet) which is a form of free facility. The kinds of resources could differ and change as per the various phases of the project.

Resource Providers

Resource Providers refers the different individuals/organizations that provide resources to any organization. There are many organizations, groups and individuals that provide resources to the NGOs. The groups have been classified as follows: 

®    Organizations/Institutions

®    International Non-Government

®    Organizations/Institutions

®    National Governments

®    Businessmen/Organizations/Private sector

®    Individual

®    Other Groups

Factors that motivate resource providers

1. Politics: Receiving votes, spreading the ideology, making decisions for one's interest, asking to keep the name of the party, asking to construct statue of leaders, enforce the party's program, publicizing the party, bringing divisions.

2. Social: To have one's name, protect image, for employment, for future of son/daughter, or family, to expand relations with various personalities, enhance pride, for genuine development, to support, to affect on education, utilize the unused resources.

3. Financial: To earn money, make profit, for job, employment, use illegal property, to evade tax, to get tax concessions, to receive interest .

4. Business: To evade tax, to get concessions, to make profit, to sell one's products, to earn interest, as a good citizen of the country, realizing one's duty, because there is not many profit.

5. Religious: To publicize the religion, to increase followers, to built temples/monasteries etc.

6. Development: Because of common thought on development, pity, love, to share experiences, utilize free time, to gain knowledge skills, with pure heart/ spirit, to bring equality.

7. Cultural: To increase influence of one's culture, to influence on the food, style of working, to preserve good culture, to wipe out superstition etc.

Process of mobilizing and managing resources

Mobilizing and managing resources is a way of marshalling and harnessing them. To be effective, the process must include the following steps:

Identification and/or collection

What resources are needed? What resources are available or already exist? What resources are not found in the community and need to be obtained from outside?

Selection and prioritization

What resources will sustain programme implementation? What resources will be used?

What are the advantages/disadvantages of using these resources?

Utilization

How could we use the resources to the fullest? To what extent can the resources be used for continuing education? How can the use of the resources are sustained.

Community Participation in Mobilizing Resources in School

The role of community in school education can be immensely valuable.  Community participation can lead to greater advantages in terms of improved school performance, reduced drop outs rates, more positive attitude towards the school. The communication Participation in Mobilizing Resources includes:

·         Contribution of Money, Materials and Labour:  Members of community are participating in mobilizing resources of education by contributing money, materials like Computers, Desks etc and help them in different labour works.

·         Contributing in Maximizing limited Resources: Resources are usually scarce so we need to do the best with what we have, the community is participating in maximizing the resources available by giving awareness to the community members, assemble the students and giving information regarding limited resources and how it can be sustained for further use.

·         Participating with schools in cooperation with facilitators: Education is most effective where community members participate with one another in cooperation with facilitators. In addition to training, simple research, advocacy and social mobilization, this collaboration extends to creating local curriculum and preparing learning materials.

·         Participating in Course content design process: The community members must participate in curriculum design. They should be given the opportunity to say what they want to learn when, where and how.  Meeting between community members and school boards discussing their needs and problems. Listing and prioritizing these problems according to the urgency of the need and the availability of resources

·         Uses and kinds of community materials: Community members can contribute in preparation of learning materials. The materials to be prepared consist of all the learning aids, tools or instruments that will help learners develop knowledge, skills and attitudes. In many cases, materials for education programmes are provided by central organizations. Some of these materials do not meet the real needs and problems of the community. They are designed for general use and not for a specific community, particularly grassroots learners. Teachers and facilitators have complained about the inappropriate materials that they have received from outside. Education facilitators need to develop materials with the help of community members. They also need to identify if there are already existing materials for education activities. If other appropriate materials are found, it should be used or adapt them. Materials development is not hard and it can be done as a part of the learning strategy we use. Involving the community learners will also help improve their literacy.

·         Capacity building: People in the community are human resources that need to be mobilized and managed for continuing education. People in the community are to be become more efficient in their work, they need to continuously build up or increase their capacity to do the job better. By capacity building, we mean the ability to do something to bridge the gap between what is and what ought to be. It empowers people by enabling them to have control of their lives and activities. It is the holistic way of developing their knowledge, attitudes and skills through various activities that call for participation and involvement. It tries to match the present competencies of people with the ones they need.

Conclusion

Mobilizing resources means identifying and prioritizing the available resources for use in education activities and using these resources in the best ways that we can. Resources are usually scarce so we need to do the best with what we have. Men and women involved in education activities should be good at mobilizing and managing resources. If they are not, they should be helped in this through training, either face-to-face or self-study. Training will help make resource management more efficient in terms of saving time and cost.

     

LEADERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT

Meaning and Definition of Leadership

Leadership is one of the most important aspects of managing. Literally, the word leadership has been derived from the word lead which means to guide, to lead or to command. Leadership is the process of leading the activities and efforts of an individual or a group for achieving the desired goals and objectives of the enterprise. A leader directs and motivates the activities of the members of a group so as to achieve the pre-determined objectives and goals of the enterprise.

Leadership is the personal quality of an individual who organises the efforts of the followers and directs their activities towards the achievement of organisational goal. Leadership is therefore, regarded as the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts towards goal achievement in a given situation. Leadership is a function of the leader the follower and other situational variables. One who is in a position of influencing others(followers) whether a manager of a formal organisation or an informal leader of an informal group or a head of family, may be called leader.

Leadership form apart of management with manager as its leader, who is responsible for planning and organisation functions of an organisation. It is undoubtedly true that a manager may be a weak leader or a leader may be a weak manager or vice versa may be equally true. So, a manager with leadership qualities , is a true leader of the organisation who can get the work done from the workers(followers) effectively.

The concept of leadership is a social notion. it was formally developed during the 1960s to emphasize the ability of the leader to influence the people in his organisation in order to achieve the organisational goals.

Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence the behavior and work of others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation. Leadership is the potential to influence behavior of others. It is also defined as the capacity to influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are required to develop future visions, and to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the visions.

 Leadership may be defined as the ability to exert interpersonal influence by means of communication towards the achievement of a goal—Koontz and O'Donnell

Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives—George R.Terry

Thus it is evident from the analysis of the above definitions that the leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour, attitudes, activities and efforts of an individual or a group for achieving common goals. It is also important that the above definitions do not mention any particular type of organistion where leadership may exist. It may be anywhere and in any situation where someone tries to influence the behaviour of another individual or group, leadership is there.

CHARACTERISTIC OF LEADERSHIP

1.  There must be a group of followers : Without followers, leadership cannot be imagined and the leader cannot exert his authority. No matter what is the relationship between a leader and followers in a formal or informal organisation.

2. Leadership is a personal quality : of character and behaviour in a man to exert inter-personal influence

3.Leadership is a reciprocal relationship : between the leader and the led (followers). A leader does not only influence his group but is, at the same time, influenced by it.

4. Leadership is a dynamic and ever evolving process of influencing the behaviour, attitudes, activities and efforts of individuals and groups

5. Leadership guides the individual and groups to achieve the common goals of the organisation and unifies and motivates the followers for this purpose

6. Leadership is related to a particular situation at a given point of time and under the specific set of circumstances. It styles may differ from time to time.

QUALITIES OF LEADERSHIP

1. Physical Qualities – sound health, vitality and endurance

2. Psychological Qualities – personal magnetism, enthusiasm, co-operation, ability to inspire, forcefulness

3. Intellectual traits- a high degree of intelligence, an open mind, a capacity of sound judgement, an ability to teach, flexibility of mind, abilty to communicate

4.Qualities of character- integrity, self-discipline, fair play, willingness to accept responsibility, physical and moral courage, humanism

From the above study we may conclude the following main qualities of leadership

·         Sound body

·         An instinct to take lead and initiative

·         Capacity to take sound decision

·         Sense of responsibility

·         Flexibility of mind

·         Ability to integrate and inspire

·         Spirit of cooperation

·         Ability to communicate

·         Courage, enthusiasm,

·         Personal magnetism

Now we will have some discussion on what I have explained so far.. There are two opposite opinions about leadership. Some experts are of the opinion that leaders are born and not made.. What do you think of the statement Leaders are born and not made.. Would you say Leaders are born  and not made or would you say leaders are made and not born.?

The first statements believed that leadership qualities are inherent since birth. And the second one, which is leaders are made and not born—believed that they get the training of leadership.

Leadership styles

The research suggested that two of the styles, coercive and pacesetting, could have a negative impact on the school.

Six leadership styles
	Modus operandi	Style	Emotional intelligence competencies	When the style works best	Overall impact on climate
Coercive	Demands immediate compliance	Do what I tell you	Drive to achieve, initiative, self-control	In a crisis, to kick-start a turnaround, or with a problem employee	Negative
Authoritative	Mobilises people towards a vision	Come with me	Self-confidence, empathy, change catalyst	When changes require a new vision, or when a clear direction is needed	Most strongly positive
Affiliative	Creates harmony and builds emotional bonds	People come first	Empathy, building relationships, communication	To heal rifts in a team or to motivate people during stressful circumstances	Positive
Democratic	Forges consensus through participation	What do you think?	Collaboration, team leadership, communication	To build in or buy consensus, or to get input from valuable employees	Positive
Pacesetting	Sets high standards for performance	Do as I do now	Conscientiousness, drive to achieve, initiative	To get quick results from a highly motivated and competent team	Negative
Coaching	Develops people for the future	Try this	Developing others, empathy, self-awareness	To help an employee improve performance or develop long-term strengths	Positive

The coercive style is the least effective in most organisational situations because flexibility is hardest hit along with people's sense of responsibility. People therefore lack motivation and think 'How does any of this matter?' This style should be used with extreme caution in situations such as turning around a school or department.

Pacesetting leaders set high performance standards and exemplify these standards themselves, but this approach should also be used sparingly. The high expectations of pacesetting leaders and lack of feedback destroy organisational climate by overwhelming staff, reducing commitment, promoting dependency and reducing morale. However, this approach gets work done on time, especially when all staff are self-motivated, highly competent and need little direction or co-ordination.

The affiliative style is a good all-round approach that should be employed when trying to build team harmony or mend broken trust. It revolves around people, with the leader valuing people and their emotions more than tasks and goals. The leader builds strong emotional bonds, increases loyalty and improves communication. This is the antithesis of the coercive leader because flexibility, trust and responsibility become part of the culture. Because this approach focuses on praise, employees might believe that mediocrity is tolerated, so combining the affiliative style with the coercive style provides a balance.

Democratic leaders build trust, respect and commitment by getting people to share their ideas and buy into the organisation's strategy. Staff in democratic schools tend to be very realistic about what can and cannot be accomplished. This approach works best when the leader is uncertain about the best direction to take and needs guidance from able employees. A drawback of this style is endless meetings because consensus remains elusive and people feel confused and leaderless. At its worst, this approach can escalate conflicts.

Coaching is an appropriate style for schools because it models learning by encouraging staff to establish long-term development goals and to find ways of attaining them. Coaching leaders give plenty of instruction and feedback. They also excel at delegation. This style is used least often, particularly because it is a time-consuming approach. However, when successfully applied, it has a positive effect on climate and performance. This approach works best when employees are already aware of their weaknesses and want to improve, but fails when leaders are inept coaches or staff are resistant to learning. (For more about coaching, see Unit 4.)

Hay McBer suggests that the most effective style is authoritative leadership because this approach would drive up every aspect of a school's climate. The visionary approach and clarity of communication motivate people and help them see how they contribute to the organisation. This approach is particularly useful when an organisation is adrift because the leader charts a new course. It fails, however, if the leader is working with a team of more experienced experts or peers.

Leadership Functions:

1. Setting Goals: A leader is expected to perform creative function of laying out goals and policies to persuade the subordinates to work with zeal and confidence.

2. Organizing: The second function of a leader is to create and shape the organization on scientific lines by assigning roles appropriate to individual abilities with the view to make its various components to operate sensitively towards the achievement of enterprise goals.

3. Initiating Action: The next function of a leader is to take the initiative in all matters of interest to the group. He should not depend upon others for decision and judgment. He should float new ideas and his decisions should reflect original thinking.

4. Co-Ordination: A leader has to reconcile the interests of the individual members of the group with that of the organization. He has to ensure voluntary co-operation from the group in realizing the common objectives.

5. Direction and Motivation: It is the primary function of a leader to guide and direct his group and motivate people to do their best in the achievement of desired goals, he should build up confidence and zeal in the work group.

6. Link between Management and Workers: A leader works as a necessary link between the management and the workers. He interprets the policies and programmes of the management to his subordinates and represents the subordinates’ interests before the management. He can prove effective only when he can act as the true guardian of the interests of his subordinates.

7.  The controller of internal relation within the organization:  One of the functions of the leader is to see, supervise and control the function of various sections of his organization and try his best to coordinate the activities with the organization.

8.  Administrator of reward and punishment:  As a leader, he is involved in a day to day affairs of the business and supervises the activities. Thus, he is also involved in administration and encourages, upgrades and promotes the workers who deserve and simultaneously he also reproves, transfers and fires the poor performers.

MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT

Development is the act or process of developing; growth; progress of child development and economic development. Development means “improvement in country’s economic and social conditions”. More specially, it refers to improvements in way of managing an area’s natural and human resources in order to create wealth and improve people’s lives.

Therefore, Leadership Development expands the capacity of individuals to perform in leadership roles within organizations. Leadership development refers to activities to improve the skills, abilities and confidence of leaders. Programmes vary massively in complexity, cost and style of teaching. Coaching and mentoring are two forms of development often used to guide and develop leaders.

Leadership development is a systematic approach to expanding the performance capability of individuals in leadership roles within your organization.

Leadership development is an effort (hopefully, planned in nature) that enhances the learner's capacity to lead oneself, other individuals, groups and organizations.

Importance of Leadership for development

Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and to achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in a concern.

1.      Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.

2.      Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s working. He motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the work from the subordinates.

3.      Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have to perform their work effectively and efficiently.

4.      Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the employees with regards to their complaints and problems.

5.      Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities as they work to achieve goals.

6.      Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human relations should be kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with employees and should listen to their problems and solve them. He should treat employees on humanitarian terms.

7.      Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.

SUMMARIZATION

Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour, attitude, activities and efforts of an individual or a group for achieving common goals, leadership exists everywhere irrespective of the type of organisation. It has the following characteristics: what are they?